There would seem to be AFB spreading around the states in a particularly quick fashion, I will post a series of articles to provide information to those who have yet to experience this disease, will try to gather information on exactly how much a problem for 2009 these diseases are.
[edit] American foulbrood (AF
Field test for American FoulbroodAmerican Foul Brood (AF, caused by the spore- forming Paenibacillus larvae There would seem to be AFB spreading around the states in a particularly quick fashion, I will post a series of articles to provide information to those who have yet to experience this disease, will try to gather information on exactly how much a problem for 2009 these diseases are.
[edit] American foulbrood (AF
Field test for American FoulbroodAmerican Foul Brood (AF, caused by the spore- forming Paenibacillus larvae ssp. larvae (formerly classified as Bacillus larvae), is the most widespread and destructive of the bee brood diseases. Paenibacillus larvae is a rod-shaped bacterium, which is visible only under a high power microscope. Larvae up to 3 days old become infected by ingesting spores that are present in their food. Young larvae less than 24 hours old are most susceptible to infection. Spores germinate in the gut of the larva and the vegetative form of the bacteria begins to grow, taking its nourishment from the larva. Spores will not germinate in larvae over 3 days old. Infected larvae normally die after their cell is sealed. The vegetative form of the bacterium will die but not before it produces many millions of spores. Each dead larva may contain as many as 100 million spores. This disease only affects the bee larvae but is highly infectious and deadly to bee brood. Infected larvae darken and die. [7][8]
[edit] History
Until 1906 the two foulbrood diseases were not differentiated and the condition was generally referred to as foulbrood. Phillips (1906) used the terms European and American to distinguish the diseases. However the designations did not refer to the geographical distributions but to the areas where they were first investigated scientifically (Shimanuki, 1990). White (1907) demonstrated conclusively that a bacterium that he called Bacillus larvae was the cause of American Foulbrood (AF disease by fulfilling Koch's postulates. The geographical origin of AFB is unknown, but it is found almost worldwide (Matheson, 1993,1996)[9]
[edit] Diagnosis
Lab testing is necessary for definitive diagnosis, but a good field test is to touch a dead larva with a toothpick or twig. It will be sticky and "ropey" (drawn out). Foulbrood also has a characteristic odor, and experienced beekeepers with a good sense of smell can often detect the disease upon opening a hive. In the photo at right, some larvae are healthy while others are diseased. Capped cells with decomposing larvae are sunken, as can be seen at lower right. Some caps may be torn, as well. Compare with healthy brood. The most reliable disease diagnosis is done by sending in some possibly affected brood comb to a laboratory specialized in identifying honey bee diseases. [10]
[edit] Disease spread
When cleaning infected cells, bees distribute spores throughout the entire colony. Disease spreads rapidly throughout the hive as the bees, attempting to remove the spore-laden dead larvae, contaminate brood food. Nectar stored in contaminated cells will contain spores and soon the brood chamber becomes filled with contaminated honey. As this honey is moved up into the supers, the entire hive becomes contaminated with spores. When the colony becomes weak from AFB infection, robber bees may enter and take contaminated honey back to their hives thereby spreading the disease to other colonies and apiaries. Beekeepers also may spread disease by moving equipment (frames or supers) from contaminated hives to healthy ones.
American Foul Brood spores are extremely resistant to desiccation and can remain viable for more than 40 years in honey and beekeeping equipment. Therefore honey from an unknown source should never be used as bee feed, and used beekeeping equipment should be assumed contaminated unless known to be otherwise.[11]
[edit] Treatment
hive to be burned completelyAFB spores are present in virtually every hive. Some brood in weakened colonies can become diseased. If the diseased larva dies within the hive, millions of spores are released.
Antibiotics, in non-resistant strains of the pathogen, can prevent the vegetative state of the bacterium forming. Drug treatment to prevent the American foulbrood spores from successfully germinating and proliferating is possible using oxytetracycline hydrochloride (Terramycin).[12] Another drug treatment is tylosin tartrate that was US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved in 2005[13].
Chemical treatment is sometimes used prophylactically, but this is a source of considerable controversy because certain strains of the bacterium seem to be rapidly developing resistance. [14] In addition, hives that are contaminated with millions of American foulbrood spores have to be prophylactically treated indefinitely. Once the treatment is suspended the American foulbrood spores germinate successfully again leading to a disease outbreak.
Destrucción por fuego de la coloniaBecause of the persistence of the spores (which can survive up to 40 years), many State Apiary Inspectors require an AFB diseased hive to be burned completely. A less radical method of containing the spread of disease is burning the frames and comb and thoroughly flame scorching the interior of the hive body, bottom board and covers. Dipping the hive parts in hot paraffin wax or a 3% sodium hypochlorite solution (bleach) also renders the AFB spores innocuous. [15]
[edit] European foulbrood (EF
Melissococcus plutonius is a bacterium that infests the mid-gut of an infected bee larva. European foulbrood is less deadly to a colony than American foulbrood. Melissococcus plutonius does not form spores, though it can overwinter on comb.
European foulbrood is often considered a "stress" disease - a disease that is dangerous only if the colony is already under stress for other reasons. An otherwise healthy colony can usually survive European foulbrood. An outbreak of the disease may be controlled chemically with oxytetracycline hydrochloride, but honies from treated colonies could have chemical residues from the treatment. The 'Shook Swarm' technique of bee husbandry can also be used to effectively control the disease, the advantage being that chemicals are not used. Prophylactic treatments are not recommended as they lead to resistant bacteria.
Appearance of brood comb Age of dead brood Color of dead brood Consistency of dead brood Odor of dead brood Scale characteristics Infectious agent
Sealed brood. Discolored, sunken, or punctured cappings. Usually older sealed larvae or young pupae. Lying lengthwise in cells. Dull white, becoming light brown, coffee brown to dark brown, or almost black. Soft, becoming sticky to ropy. Slightly to pronounced putrid odor. Lies uniformly flat on lower side of cell. Adheres tightly to cell wall. Fine, threadlike tongue of dead maybe present. Head lies flat. Black in color. American Foulbrood
Unsealed brood. Some sealed brood in advanced cases with discolored, sunken or punctured cappings. Usually young unsealed larvae; occasionally older sealed larvae. Typically in coiled stage. Dull white, becoming yellowish white to brown, dark brown, or almost black. Watery; rarely sticky or ropy. Granular. Slightly to penetrating sour. Usually twisted in cell. Does not adhere to cell wall. Rubbery. Black in color. European Foulbrood
American beekeepers will soon have a new antibiotic with which to protect their colonies from American foulbrood disease, thanks to Agricultural Research Service (ARS) studies that paved the way for the compound's regulatory approval.
TYLAN Soluble (tylosin tartrate), produced by Elanco Animal Health of Greenfield, Ind., was approved for use October 20 by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, following the agency's review of research data compiled by scientists with the ARS Bee Research Laboratory in Beltsville, Md.
American foulbrood is among the most widespread and devastating diseases of honey bees. Caused by the bacterium Paenibacillus larvae, the disease kills young bee larvae and transforms their remains into dark, shriveled ropes or "scales." These contain billions of spores that are easily spread by nurse bees. Although American foulbrood poses no human danger, severe outbreaks can weaken or kill entire bee colonies, according to Mark Feldlaufer, who leads the ARS Beltsville bee lab.
Before tylosin tartrate, only one other antibiotic, oxytetracycline hydrochloride (Terramycin), was available for use against American foulbrood. However, reliance on this one compound has prompted the emergence of resistant strains of American foulbrood.
Tylosin tartrate is already approved for therapeutic use in chickens and swine, and as a feed-efficiency aid in turkeys. Its approval for honey bees marks a first for a so-called minor animal species. Feldlaufer's team made this approval possible by furnishing the FDA with a wealth of information on tylosin tartrate's field efficacy and safety, both for honey bees and humans. For example, the team determined the necessary dosage, application methods and timing of treatment in honey bee hives.
Although the drug approval labels honey bees as a "minor animal species," the bee's importance to U.S. agriculture is hardly minor. By one estimate, honey bee pollination of apples, almonds, blueberries and many other agricultural crops results in yield and quality improvements valued at more than $14 billion annually.
This is what I have available for the moment. More will follow please provide me with fed back.
Barry :drinks:
larvae (formerly classified as Bacillus larvae), is the most widespread and destructive of the bee brood diseases. Paenibacillus larvae is a rod-shaped bacterium, which is visible only under a high power microscope. Larvae up to 3 days old become infected by ingesting spores that are present in their food. Young larvae less than 24 hours old are most susceptible to infection. Spores germinate in the gut of the larva and the vegetative form of the bacteria begins to grow, taking its nourishment from the larva. Spores will not germinate in larvae over 3 days old. Infected larvae normally die after their cell is sealed. The vegetative form of the bacterium will die but not before it produces many millions of spores. Each dead larva may contain as many as 100 million spores. This disease only affects the bee larvae but is highly infectious and deadly to bee brood. Infected larvae darken and die. [7][8]
[edit] History
Until 1906 the two foulbrood diseases were not differentiated and the condition was generally referred to as foulbrood. Phillips (1906) used the terms European and American to distinguish the diseases. However the designations did not refer to the geographical distributions but to the areas where they were first investigated scientifically (Shimanuki, 1990). White (1907) demonstrated conclusively that a bacterium that he called Bacillus larvae was the cause of American Foulbrood (AF disease by fulfilling Koch's postulates. The geographical origin of AFB is unknown, but it is found almost worldwide (Matheson, 1993,1996)[9]
[edit] Diagnosis
Lab testing is necessary for definitive diagnosis, but a good field test is to touch a dead larva with a toothpick or twig. It will be sticky and "ropey" (drawn out). Foulbrood also has a characteristic odor, and experienced beekeepers with a good sense of smell can often detect the disease upon opening a hive. In the photo at right, some larvae are healthy while others are diseased. Capped cells with decomposing larvae are sunken, as can be seen at lower right. Some caps may be torn, as well. Compare with healthy brood. The most reliable disease diagnosis is done by sending in some possibly affected brood comb to a laboratory specialized in identifying honey bee diseases. [10]
[edit] Disease spread
When cleaning infected cells, bees distribute spores throughout the entire colony. Disease spreads rapidly throughout the hive as the bees, attempting to remove the spore-laden dead larvae, contaminate brood food. Nectar stored in contaminated cells will contain spores and soon the brood chamber becomes filled with contaminated honey. As this honey is moved up into the supers, the entire hive becomes contaminated with spores. When the colony becomes weak from AFB infection, robber bees may enter and take contaminated honey back to their hives thereby spreading the disease to other colonies and apiaries. Beekeepers also may spread disease by moving equipment (frames or supers) from contaminated hives to healthy ones.
American Foul Brood spores are extremely resistant to desiccation and can remain viable for more than 40 years in honey and beekeeping equipment. Therefore honey from an unknown source should never be used as bee feed, and used beekeeping equipment should be assumed contaminated unless known to be otherwise.[11]
[edit] Treatment
hive to be burned completelyAFB spores are present in virtually every hive. Some brood in weakened colonies can become diseased. If the diseased larva dies within the hive, millions of spores are released.
Antibiotics, in non-resistant strains of the pathogen, can prevent the vegetative state of the bacterium forming. Drug treatment to prevent the American foulbrood spores from successfully germinating and proliferating is possible using oxytetracycline hydrochloride (Terramycin).[12] Another drug treatment is tylosin tartrate that was US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved in 2005[13].
Chemical treatment is sometimes used prophylactically, but this is a source of considerable controversy because certain strains of the bacterium seem to be rapidly developing resistance. [14] In addition, hives that are contaminated with millions of American foulbrood spores have to be prophylactically treated indefinitely. Once the treatment is suspended the American foulbrood spores germinate successfully again leading to a disease outbreak.
Destrucción por fuego de la coloniaBecause of the persistence of the spores (which can survive up to 40 years), many State Apiary Inspectors require an AFB diseased hive to be burned completely. A less radical method of containing the spread of disease is burning the frames and comb and thoroughly flame scorching the interior of the hive body, bottom board and covers. Dipping the hive parts in hot paraffin wax or a 3% sodium hypochlorite solution (bleach) also renders the AFB spores innocuous. [15]
[edit] European foulbrood (EF
Melissococcus plutonius is a bacterium that infests the mid-gut of an infected bee larva. European foulbrood is less deadly to a colony than American foulbrood. Melissococcus plutonius does not form spores, though it can overwinter on comb.
European foulbrood is often considered a "stress" disease - a disease that is dangerous only if the colony is already under stress for other reasons. An otherwise healthy colony can usually survive European foulbrood. An outbreak of the disease may be controlled chemically with oxytetracycline hydrochloride, but honies from treated colonies could have chemical residues from the treatment. The 'Shook Swarm' technique of bee husbandry can also be used to effectively control the disease, the advantage being that chemicals are not used. Prophylactic treatments are not recommended as they lead to resistant bacteria.
Appearance of brood comb Age of dead brood Color of dead brood Consistency of dead brood Odor of dead brood Scale characteristics Infectious agent
Sealed brood. Discolored, sunken, or punctured cappings. Usually older sealed larvae or young pupae. Lying lengthwise in cells. Dull white, becoming light brown, coffee brown to dark brown, or almost black. Soft, becoming sticky to ropy. Slightly to pronounced putrid odor. Lies uniformly flat on lower side of cell. Adheres tightly to cell wall. Fine, threadlike tongue of dead maybe present. Head lies flat. Black in color. American Foulbrood
Unsealed brood. Some sealed brood in advanced cases with discolored, sunken or punctured cappings. Usually young unsealed larvae; occasionally older sealed larvae. Typically in coiled stage. Dull white, becoming yellowish white to brown, dark brown, or almost black. Watery; rarely sticky or ropy. Granular. Slightly to penetrating sour. Usually twisted in cell. Does not adhere to cell wall. Rubbery. Black in color. European Foulbrood
American beekeepers will soon have a new antibiotic with which to protect their colonies from American foulbrood disease, thanks to Agricultural Research Service (ARS) studies that paved the way for the compound's regulatory approval.
TYLAN Soluble (tylosin tartrate), produced by Elanco Animal Health of Greenfield, Ind., was approved for use October 20 by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, following the agency's review of research data compiled by scientists with the ARS Bee Research Laboratory in Beltsville, Md.
American foulbrood is among the most widespread and devastating diseases of honey bees. Caused by the bacterium Paenibacillus larvae, the disease kills young bee larvae and transforms their remains into dark, shriveled ropes or "scales." These contain billions of spores that are easily spread by nurse bees. Although American foulbrood poses no human danger, severe outbreaks can weaken or kill entire bee colonies, according to Mark Feldlaufer, who leads the ARS Beltsville bee lab.
Before tylosin tartrate, only one other antibiotic, oxytetracycline hydrochloride (Terramycin), was available for use against American foulbrood. However, reliance on this one compound has prompted the emergence of resistant strains of American foulbrood.
Tylosin tartrate is already approved for therapeutic use in chickens and swine, and as a feed-efficiency aid in turkeys. Its approval for honey bees marks a first for a so-called minor animal species. Feldlaufer's team made this approval possible by furnishing the FDA with a wealth of information on tylosin tartrate's field efficacy and safety, both for honey bees and humans. For example, the team determined the necessary dosage, application methods and timing of treatment in honey bee hives.
Although the drug approval labels honey bees as a "minor animal species," the bee's importance to U.S. agriculture is hardly minor. By one estimate, honey bee pollination of apples, almonds, blueberries and many other agricultural crops results in yield and quality improvements valued at more than $14 billion annually.
This is what I have available for the moment. More will follow please provide me with fed back.
Barry
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